Introduction

In communities across Nigeria, the rising cost of cooking gas and kerosene has driven millions of households and food vendors to adopt a hazardous alternative: burning plastic waste as fuel. This practice is not an isolated phenomenon—research indicates that up to 58% of households in some Nigerian local government areas burn garbage, including plastic, for cooking. The Nigerian MTF survey found that approximately 13% of households nationwide report using garbage as a cooking fuel.

The practice manifests in several forms across the country: food sellers frying akara (bean cakes) using plastic-scavenged fires, butchers burning tyres and plastics to remove animal hair in abattoirs, and mai suya (roasted meat sellers) using plastic-contaminated fires to prepare their delicacies. While these adaptations are driven by economic necessity and energy poverty, the health consequences are severe and demand urgent attention.

 The Scale of the Crisis

The drivers of this practice are multifaceted. Economic constraints are paramount—with cooking gas prices soaring above N1,500 per kilogram sometimes, many Nigerians simply cannot afford clean fuels . Simultaneously, rapid urbanization has made traditional fuels like firewood increasingly scarce and expensive. Compounding this is Nigeria’s waste management crisis: with 85% of plastic waste mismanaged and only 29% of waste formally collected, plastic accumulates abundantly in communities, becoming an accessible “free” fuel source.

One akara seller in Akure, Ondo State, articulated the grim calculus driving this practice: “I understand what you are saying, but as long as prices of kerosene and cooking gas remain high, I will continue using plastics, since I don’t have any other source of income than this to feed my family” . A civil servant echoed this sentiment: “Forget about health hazards. Hunger is more hazardous to the health than anything”. These testimonies reveal a population trapped between immediate survival needs and long-term health risks.

 The Toxic Cocktail: What Is Released When Plastic Burns

The combustion of plastic releases a complex mixture of hazardous substances that pose multiple pathways of harm. Unlike burning wood or charcoal, plastic is a petrochemical product containing hundreds of chemical additives, stabilizers, and colorants.

Dioxins and Furans: These are among the most toxic substances known to science, formed when chlorine-containing plastics (such as PVC) are burned. Dioxins are persistent organic pollutants that accumulate in the food chain and are linked to cancer, immune system suppression, reproductive harm, and endocrine disruption.

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs): These organic compounds with two or more fused aromatic rings are formed during incomplete combustion of organic matter at temperatures above 200°C . PAHs possess mutagenic, genotoxic, and immunosuppressive properties. Studies have established that grilling and barbequing produce the highest PAH contamination in meat, with direct deposition from smoke being a primary source.

Heavy Metals: Burning tyres—a common practice in Nigerian abattoirs—releases heavy metals such as lead, zinc, and copper. The U.S. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry has confirmed that “tyre derived fuel” contains carcinogenic heavy metals. The Veterinary Council of Nigeria warns that consuming meat processed this way increases cancer risk.

Volatile Organic Compounds and Particulate Matter: These emissions contribute significantly to household and ambient air pollution, with global warming impact estimated at 2-10% of carbon dioxide emissions.

The open-flame roasting process itself is known to produce high levels of PAH contamination, as the smoke and heat cause fat to drip and produce carcinogenic compounds that adhere to the food’s surface. When plastic is added to the fire, this contamination is significantly amplified by the additional toxic byproducts of plastic combustion.

 Health Impacts on Food Vendors and Consumers

 Direct Health Consequences for Vendors

Food vendors and household cooks bear the brunt of immediate exposure. The smoke from burning plastic causes respiratory symptoms, eye irritation, and lung function impairment. A study comparing suya sellers in Calabar with control subjects found significantly lower forced vital capacity (FVC), forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1), and peak expiratory flow rates among the sellers—clear evidence of occupational lung damage .

Women and children are disproportionately affected, spending more time at home where plastic is burned. The World Health Organization reported that 98,000 Nigerian women die annually from firewood smoke-related illnesses, with smoke being the third-biggest killer after malaria and HIV/AIDS. Household air pollution from solid fuels causes stroke, ischemic heart disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and lung cancer. Close to half of pneumonia deaths among children under five are attributed to particulate matter inhaled from household air pollution.

 Food Contamination Pathways

The contamination of food occurs through two primary mechanisms:

Direct Deposition: Toxic compounds in smoke—including PAHs, dioxins, and heavy metals—settle directly onto the surface of food being cooked. For grilled or roasted meats, this deposition is particularly pronounced as fat drips onto the fire, creating smoke that carries contaminants upward onto the meat.

Ash Contamination: The ash from burned plastics contains concentrated toxins that can be transferred to food, soil, and water sources.

A scientific study analyzing processed meats from street vendors in Bariga, Lagos, found that grilling produced the highest PAH concentrations, followed by barbequing, while boiling produced the lowest contamination. Health risk assessments using Estimated Daily Intake (EDI), Target Hazard Quotient (THQ), and Hazard Index (HI) indices revealed that children are more vulnerable than adults to PAH-related toxicity .

 Specific Nigerian Practices and Their Risks

 Akara Frying with Plastic Fuel

Akara (fried bean cake) vendors commonly use firewood supplemented with plastic waste to maintain high heat for deep frying. The practice is driven by the need for rapid ignition and sustained flames. However, the toxic fumes are inhaled directly by vendors and customers waiting nearby. A report documented an akara seller in Akure whose efforts to ignite a fire produced “so offensive and toxic” smoke that bystanders reached for nose masks, while she continued, with “red eyes glistening with tears”.

The health risk extends beyond smoke inhalation. The frying oil itself can absorb volatile compounds from the combustion process, contaminating the akara. While transformer oil—containing polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)—has been separately identified as a hazardous frying oil used by some vendors, the use of plastic as fuel adds another layer of chemical contamination to the food.

 Abattoir Practices: Tyres and Plastics for De-hairing

At abattoirs across Nigeria, including Dei-Dei, Karu, Kubwa, and Gwagwalada in Abuja, butchers burn scrap tyres and plastics to remove hair from cow hides. This practice, driven by the cheap availability of tyres and the speed of the process, has been condemned by the Veterinary Council of Nigeria, which warns that meat processed this way contains cancer-causing chemicals.

Dr. Anthony Ekeocha, a lecturer in Animal Production and Health at Federal University Oye-Ekiti, advises butchers to instead use hot water to remove hair, noting that continuous consumption of kerosene- or tyre-contaminated meat can damage internal organs such as the liver, kidney, and heart . The hides processed this way become ponmo (cooked cow hide), a beloved food consumed by millions of Nigerians, creating a widespread exposure pathway.

 Suya Roasting Over Plastic-Contaminated Fire

Suya, a popular skewered meat delicacy, is traditionally roasted over glowing embers. However, many mai suya (suya sellers) burn plastic alongside wood and charcoal to make the fire burn brighter and faster. This practice directly exposes the meat to PAHs and other toxins.

Health experts have noted that meat cooked over open flames forms heterocyclic amines (HCAs), which are known carcinogens . With the added burden of plastic combustion, the cancer risk is compounded. A 2015 investigation found that suya sellers often operate in unhygienic environments, with meat stored in plastic bags near gutters, raising additional concerns about bacterial contamination.

 Roasting Corn with Plastic-Contaminated Fire

The seasonal roasting of corn, a beloved Nigerian street snack enjoyed particularly during the dry season, has also been implicated in the dangerous practice of using plastics to ignite and sustain cooking fires.

Food vendors who roast corn, yams, and plantains are among those who have turned to burning plastics due to the prohibitive cost of clean fuels. The motivation is the same economic desperation that drives other food vendors: plastics are free and readily available, while gas and kerosene are increasingly unaffordable. In 2023, a litre of cooking gas was priced between N1,000 and N1,200, and prices have continued to rise . A common justification among vendors is captured in the phrase: “Forget about health hazards. Hunger is more hazardous to the health than anything”.

Consumers of street-roasted corn prepared over plastic-contaminated fires are directly exposed to these toxins through inhalation and ingestion. The smoke from burning plastic spreads beyond the vendor’s stall, affecting customers and passersby, while the roasted corn itself absorbs PAHs, dioxins, and heavy metals.

 Scientific Evidence of Health Risks

 PAH Contamination and Cancer Risk

A 2025 study from the University of Lagos analyzed PAH levels in beef and turkey prepared by grilling, barbequing, and boiling. Results confirmed that grilling induced the highest PAH increase, and health risk estimation showed toxicity order: grilling > barbequing > boiling. Researchers noted that PAH exposure has been linked to primary hepatic and stomach cancer, and the higher incidence of these cancers in Nigeria compared to Europe and the USA may be partially attributable to food preparation practices.

 Household Air Pollution and Mortality

The World Health Organization identifies household air pollution (HAP) as a leading cause of avoidable deaths worldwide. HAP from solid fuels contributes to an estimated 3.2 million premature deaths annually globally, with Sub-Saharan Africa bearing a heavy burden. In Nigeria, over 128,000 deaths in 2019 resulted from solid fuel-related HAP, including 84,000 children under five.

 Gendered Impact

Cultural norms in Nigeria mean that women and children are primarily responsible for cooking, spending extended hours near fires. This exposes them to 60% of HAP-related deaths. Beyond health impacts, the time spent collecting fuel and cooking reduces opportunities for education and income generation, perpetuating cycles of poverty.

 The Broader Context: Energy Poverty and Environmental Degradation

Nigeria faces a severe clean energy deficit. As of 2021, only 16.8% of the population had access to clean cooking fuels, leaving over 175 million people relying on polluting fuels. The situation is worse in rural areas (4.6% clean fuel access) compared to urban areas (32.8%).

The consequences extend beyond human health to environmental degradation. Burning plastic releases greenhouse gases including SOx, NOx, and volatile organic compounds. At the same time, deforestation driven by firewood collection has resulted in Nigeria losing 14% of its primary forest between 2002 and 2020. The irony is stark: while burning plastic as “waste-to-energy” provides short-term relief from energy poverty, it deepens both environmental and health crises.

 Mitigation and Solutions

Experts and researchers have proposed a multifaceted approach to address this crisis:

• Subsidies for clean fuels: Making LPG and kerosene affordable for low-income households is the most direct solution. One akara seller who switched to gas reported spending N9,500 monthly but considered the investment worthwhile for her health.
• Improved waste management: Strengthening formal waste collection services would reduce the accumulation of plastic waste in communities.
• Education campaigns: Informing communities about the health dangers of burning plastic is essential, though not sufficient alone.
• Alternative cooking solutions: Developing and disseminating low-cost, clean-burning stoves could reduce reliance on polluting fuels.
• Regulatory enforcement: The Veterinary Council of Nigeria has already condemned abattoir practices involving tyres and plastics; stronger enforcement is needed.

Dr. Bishal Bharadwaj, lead researcher of a Curtin University study, emphasizes that the issue is often concentrated in neglected areas such as slums, and that “an outright ban on plastic burning might not help if people have no other option to keep warm and cook their food”. This underscores the importance of addressing the root causes—energy poverty and inadequate waste management—rather than merely prohibiting the symptom.

 Conclusion

The practice of burning plastic for cooking and food processing in Nigeria represents an urgent but underrecognized public health crisis. Driven by intersecting forces of energy poverty, inadequate waste management, and economic hardship, it exposes millions—particularly women and children—to dioxins, PAHs, heavy metals, and other carcinogens through both inhalation and food contamination.

While the immediate survival needs of food vendors and households are understandable, the long-term health toll is staggering: respiratory diseases, cancer, organ damage, and premature death. The evidence is clear that consuming food prepared over plastic-contaminated fires increases exposure to carcinogenic compounds, with children being especially vulnerable.

Addressing this crisis requires not just health warnings but systemic change: making clean fuels affordable, improving waste management, and recognizing that for millions of Nigerians, this hazardous practice is not a choice but a necessity. As one food vendor put it: “I am not the only one using plastics to cook, many food sellers engage in the act”. Until affordable alternatives exist, the hidden cost of hunger will continue to be paid in health.

 Academic Journal Articles

1. Burning plastic as household fuel – Bharadwaj, B., Jeuland, M., & Oranu, C. O. (2025). The use of plastic as a household fuel among the urban poor in the Global South. Nature Cities.
2. Prevalence of garbage burning in Northwest Nigeria – Study analyzing MTF data from 3,669 households found up to 58% of households in some LGAs burn garbage including plastic as fuel. ScienceDirect.
3. PAH and heavy metals in Nigerian commercial meats – Onyenweaku, E. O. (2025). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and heavy metals in some Nigerian commercial meats. Ibom Medical Journal, 18(2).
4. Abattoir worker health study (Dei-Dei, Abuja) – Study of 156 abattoir workers found significant lung function deterioration, elevated urinary 1-Hydroxypyrene, and high concentrations of zinc and nickel in butchers. Annals of Global Health.
5. Air pollution from plastic waste combustion (Port Harcourt) – Nwoke, I. B. & Akpe, C. (2025). PM2.5 concentrations ranged from 85–170 µg/m³ (WHO guideline: 15 µg/m³). Direct Research Journal of Public Health and Environmental Technology, 9.
6. PAH levels on suya and ponmo – Nwaoha, K. B. Determination of levels of PAHs on singed cowhide (ponmo) and charcoal grilled meat (suya). MOUAU Repository.
7. Toxicological testing of ponmo – Laboratory tests by Alfa Laboratories and Unilag Consult confirmed ponmo roasted with tyres/plastic contains PAHs, lead, and zinc above permissible limits. Punch Healthwise.

 News and Official Reports

• Abia State Government warning – Ministry of Environment statement (March 2025) cautioning against roasting meat with tyres and plastics, citing cancer risks. Daily Post.
• Benue State ban on tyre use – Vanguard investigation (January 2025) documenting abattoir practices and Commissioner’s statement on enforcement. Vanguard.
• WHO statistics on household air pollution – 98,000 Nigerian women die annually from firewood smoke; household air pollution causes stroke, ischemic heart disease, COPD, and lung cancer. The Hope Newspaper.
• LPG affordability crisis – Cooking gas prices rose from N816/kg in 2022 to N1,500/kg in 2025; 12.5kg cylinder now ~N48,000. The Guardian.
• FG warning on PCBs/transformer oil – Federal Ministry of Environment consultant warned against using PCBs for frying akara. The Tide.