Description

Vitex doniana Sweet, commonly known as black plum, African oak, or vitex, is a medium-sized deciduous tree in the mint family Lamiaceae (formerly placed in Verbenaceae) . The genus name Vitex is an old Latin name for this group of plants, which includes over 230 recognized species.

Morphology: The tree typically grows 8–18 meters (25–60 feet) in height, with a heavy, rounded crown and a clear bole (trunk) up to 5 meters tall . Some specimens can reach up to 20 meters under favorable conditions. The bark is rough, pale brown to greyish-white, rather smooth with narrow vertical fissures. The bases of old trees often develop oblong scales. Branchlets are not hairy.

Leaves: The leaves are opposite, long-stalked, and compound, measuring 14–34 cm in total length . Each leaf usually has 5 leaflets (sometimes 7) on stalks 6–14 cm long. The leaflets are distinctly stalked, ovate, obovate-elliptic, or oblong in shape, with entire margins. They measure 8–22 cm in length and 2–9 cm in width. The leaf tips are rounded or notched (emarginate), while the bases are wedge-shaped (cuneate) . The upper surface is dark green and thickly leathery, with a few scattered stellate (star-shaped) hairs; the lower surface is pale greyish-green. Young leaves may be hairy, becoming smooth (glabrous) with age.

Flowers: The flowers are numerous, small, and fragrant, borne in short, stout axillary cymes (clusters) on long stalks . They are typically white tinged with purple or violet, with the largest lobe being purple. The calyx (sepals) and pedicels (flower stalks) are densely hairy. The flower structure has been studied in detail, with research documenting various phenological stages from young bud to fruit development. Only a few flowers are open at any given time.

Fruit: The fruit is an oblong to ellipsoid drupe (fleshy fruit with a single hard seed), up to 2.5–3 cm in length . When young, the fruit is green; as it ripens, it turns purplish-black. Each fruit is clasped at the base by a persistent calyx cup and contains a sweet, starchy, black pulp surrounding a single hard, conical seed measuring 1.5–2 cm long and 1–1.2 cm wide. The pulp is sweet and edible, often compared to prunes.

Distribution and Habitat: Vitex doniana is widespread in tropical and subtropical Africa, ranging from West Africa (including Nigeria, Ghana, Senegal) through Central and East Africa to southern Africa (Angola, Botswana, South Africa) . It is the most abundant and widespread species of the genus in Africa. The tree typically grows in savannah regions, coastal woodlands, riverine forests, and lowland forests, at altitudes from sea level up to 1,800 meters. It requires a high water table and is often found along rivers and in areas with good soil moisture.

Taxonomic Note: The species has synonyms including Vitex cienkowskii Kotschy et Peyr. and Vitex cuneata Schum. et Thonn . In 2024, the Cocoa Research Institute of Nigeria (CRIN) added Vitex doniana to its mandate crops, recognizing its enormous economic potential.

Common Names

• English: Black plum, African oak, Vitex, Wild prune
• Yoruba: Oori nla (or Ori nla)
• Igbo: Ucha koro, Uchakiri  
• Hausa: Dinya (or Dinyar)
• Tiv: Tsuwa
• Fulani: Galbihi
• French: Prunier noir
• Bemba (Zambia): Mufutu
• Luganda (Uganda): Munyamazi
• Swahili (Tanzania/Kenya): Mfudu, Mfulu, Mfuru

Health Benefits

Vitex doniana is highly valued in African traditional medicine, and modern research has extensively validated its therapeutic potential. A comprehensive 2025 scoping review confirmed that the plant’s phytochemical profile justifies its traditional use for managing various diseases. The plant exhibits diverse biological activities including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, antidiabetic, and antiplasmodial properties.

1. Nutritional Composition: Vitex doniana is not only medicinal but also highly nutritious. The fruit is sweet and edible, containing vitamins A and B, and can be made into jam . The plant demonstrates high nutritional potential containing various nutrients including lipids, carbohydrates, fibers, vitamins, and proteins with a high level of essential amino acids.
2. Vitamins detected in leaves: Ascorbic acid (vitamin C), α-Tocopherol (vitamin E), vitamin A, niacin, and riboflavin.
3. Mineral composition: Includes potassium, calcium, magnesium, sodium, and phosphorus.
4. Anti-inflammatory Properties (Highly Significant): This is one of the most well-documented medicinal properties of V. doniana. The fruit, in particular, has been extensively studied for its anti-inflammatory effects.

Key findings:

• The methanol fruit extract significantly inhibited paw oedema (swelling) at doses of 10, 30, and 100 mg/kg in the carrageenan-induced inflammation model in chicks.
• The methanol-soluble fraction exhibited the highest anti-inflammatory activity with an ED50 of 16.52 ± 4.65 mg/kg, comparable to the reference drugs dexamethasone (ED50 = 7.19 mg/kg) and diclofenac (ED50 = 7.55 mg/kg).
• Oleanolic acid, isolated from the ethyl acetate fraction of the fruit, was identified as a key bioactive constituent responsible for significant anti-inflammatory activity.
• The crude extract demonstrated dose-dependent anti-inflammatory activity.
• The plant also reduced levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β and TNF-α, whose high levels are associated with various inflammatory diseases.
• Antioxidant Properties: V. doniana exhibits potent antioxidant activity across multiple studies, attributed to its rich phytochemical profile including flavonoids, phenols, and oleanolic acid.

Key findings:

• The ethyl acetate extract of the leaves exhibited high antioxidant potential (98.2%) with an inhibition percentage comparable to ascorbic acid (99.4%) and quercetin (97.2%) at a concentration of 100 µg/ml.
• Oleanolic acid isolated from the fruit showed strong antioxidant activity with an IC50 of 2.80 µg/ml, while the ethyl acetate fraction showed an IC50 of 99.35 µg/ml.
• Leaf extracts were more effective at scavenging free radicals than stem bark or root extracts; the ethanolic leaf extract had an IC50 of 0.227 mg/ml, while ascorbic acid exhibited 0.113 mg/ml.
• Fruit peel extracts have remarkably high antioxidant potential, with IC50 values ranging from 0.48 to 0.91 mg/ml, compared to pulp extracts (1.90 to 2.13 mg/ml).
• In animal studies, the aqueous extract of V. doniana leaves reversed the reduction in superoxide dismutase and catalase levels induced by carbon tetrachloride (CCl4), suggesting inhibition of the lipid peroxidation process.
• Antimicrobial and Antibacterial Properties: The plant has demonstrated broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity against various pathogens, supporting its traditional use for treating infections.

Key findings:

• The aqueous leaf extract exhibited high antimicrobial activity with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) ranging from 0.6 to 7.6 µg/ml against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Enterococcus faecalis, and Candida albicans.
• The most susceptible microorganisms were Staphylococcus aureus (MIC = 0.6 µg/ml) and Klebsiella pneumoniae (MIC = 0.8 µg/ml).
• Acetone, methanol, and ethanol leaf extracts showed significant antimicrobial activity against Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella typhi, Bacillus subtilis, and Staphylococcus aureus.
• The acetone extract showed significant activity against Escherichia coli (MIC = 0.78 mg/ml) with an inhibition zone of 17.29 mm and Salmonella typhi (MIC = 1.5 mg/ml; inhibition zone of 19.71 mm).
• The leaf essential oil has been reported to have antimicrobial potency against several bacteria, including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, Shigella dysenteriae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Salmonella typhi.
• The methanolic fruit extract was more effective than acetone extract against tested microorganisms, with inhibition zones ranging from 10.50 to 21.00 mm.
• Antidiabetic (Blood Sugar Regulation) Properties: The plant has demonstrated antidiabetic effects, supporting its traditional use for managing diabetes.
  • Administration of the aqueous leaf extract in alloxan-induced diabetic Wistar albino rats showed antioxidant effects and suggests potential for blood sugar management.
  • The ethanolic leaf extract restored glutathione and catalase activity that had been decreased by administration of 7,12-Dimethyl Benz[a]Anthracene in female Wistar rats.
• Analgesic (Pain-Relieving) Properties: The plant is used traditionally for pain management.
  • Women drink a root decoction for backaches.
• Hepatoprotective (Liver-Protective) Effects: Toxicological studies have shown that V. doniana does not adversely affect liver function.
• Subacute toxicity studies revealed that liver enzymes (ALT, AST, ALP, and GGT), serum proteins, and bilirubin levels did not significantly increase following administration of the fruit extract.
• Hematological (Blood) Benefits (Immunomodulatory Effects): The fruit extract has demonstrated beneficial effects on blood parameters.
• Subacute studies revealed an increase in red blood cell (RBC) counts, hemoglobin (HB), packed cell volume (PCV), and lymphocyte counts.
• These findings suggest possible immunomodulatory activities and potential benefits for anemia prevention.
• Antimalarial (Antiplasmodial) Properties: The plant is traditionally used to treat malaria, and research has confirmed antiplasmodial activity.
• Treatment of Gastrointestinal Disorders: Traditional medicine uses various parts of V. doniana to treat gastrointestinal disorders, including diarrhea and dysentery. The fruit is used to treat dysentery.
• Treatment of Respiratory Problems: The plant is used in traditional medicine to manage respiratory problems, including respiratory infections.
• Reproductive Health and Menstrual Problems: The plant is used traditionally to address reproductive and menstrual problems. The fruit is used to improve fertility.
• Eye Troubles: The young tender leaves are pounded, and the juice is squeezed into the eyes to treat eye troubles. The plant is also used traditionally for conjunctivitis.
• Skin Conditions: The plant is used traditionally to treat dermatological diseases, including skin rashes due to measles or chickenpox.
• Treatment of Leprosy and Jaundice: The fruit is used traditionally to treat leprosy and jaundice.
• Treatment of Gonorrhoea: The root is used for gonorrhoea.
• Treatment of Anaemia: The fruit is used to treat anaemia.
• May Help in Hypertension Management: The potassium content and some bioactive compounds may support healthy blood pressure regulation.

Other benefits

• Timber and Wood Products: The wood is whitish to light brown and produces a teak-like, termite-resistant timber. It is quite hard and suitable for light building material, furniture, carvings, boats, poles, and construction.
• Fuel and Charcoal: The tree is used as a source of firewood and for producing charcoal.
• Edible Fruit: The ripe black fruit pulp is eaten raw. It has a sweet taste, often compared to prunes. Mostly children collect and consume the fruit, but adults may also consume it, especially during food shortage periods. The fruit can be made into wine or jam.
• Leafy Vegetable: The young leaves are used as a vegetable and as a herb for cooking. The pounded leaves can be added to warm filtered grain beer.
• Fodder for Livestock: The leaves, pods, and seeds are good fodder for livestock.
• Apiculture (Bee Forage): V. doniana is a favorite tree for hanging bark beehives and serves as excellent bee forage.
• Shade Tree: The heavy rounded crown provides good shade, making it valuable in agroforestry systems and as a shade tree in croplands.
• Soil Improvement: The leaves can be used as mulch to improve soil fertility. The tree has nitrogen-fixing roots, further contributing to soil enrichment.
• Dye Production: The bark yields a dye that can be used for coloring cloth.
• Economic Importance: In 2024, the Cocoa Research Institute of Nigeria (CRIN) added Vitex doniana to its mandate crops, recognizing its enormous economic potential. Scientists have been mandated to provide research on this new crop.
• Conservation and Agroforestry: The tree is suitable for planting in croplands as scattered trees and along boundaries. It can be used for soil conservation and as a windbreak.
• Alcohol Production: The fruit can be made into wine. The pounded leaves can also be added to warm filtered grain beer.
• Cultural Importance: In some African communities, the tree is valued in traditional medicine and cultural practices.

How it is used

 Culinary uses (Nigerian and African context):

• Fresh Fruit:
  • The ripe black fruits are eaten raw as a refreshing snack. The sweet, black pulp is consumed, while the single hard seed is discarded.
  • The fruits are occasionally sold in local markets.
  • During food shortage periods, the fruits may be cooked before consumption.
• Fruit Products:
  • The fruit can be made into jam .
  • The fruit can be made into wine (alcoholic beverage) .
• Leaves as Vegetable:
  • The young leaves are used as a leafy vegetable and as a herb or for cooking.
  • The pounded leaves can be added to warm filtered grain beer.

 Traditional medicinal uses (Africa):

The plant has extensive applications in traditional medicine across Africa. Different parts (leaves, roots, fruits, trunk bark) are used to treat various ailments .

Condition	Plant Part Used	Preparation Method
Inflammation, pain, rheumatism	Fruits, leaves	Decoction or oral consumption; fruit extract
Diarrhea, dysentery, gastrointestinal disorders	Leaves, bark	Infusion or decoction, taken orally
Diabetes	Leaves	Aqueous decoction, taken orally
Malaria	Various parts	Decoction, taken orally
Respiratory infections, cough	Leaves	Infusion or steam inhalation
Eye troubles, conjunctivitis	Young leaves	Juice squeezed from pounded leaves applied as eye drops
Skin rashes (measles/chickenpox), dermatological diseases	Leaves	Topical application or leaf wash
Menstrual problems, reproductive issues	Various parts	Decoction
Infertility	Fruit	Consumed to improve fertility
Anaemia	Fruit	Consumed
Jaundice	Fruit	Consumed
Leprosy	Fruit	Consumed
Gonorrhoea	Root	Decoction
Backache	Root	Decoction drunk by women
Ulcers	Various parts	Decoction

Preparation methods summary:

• Decoction: Plant parts (leaves, roots, bark) are boiled in water, and the resulting liquid is consumed orally.
• Infusion: Plant parts are steeped in hot water (not boiled) and consumed.
• Topical application: Crushed leaves or leaf juice is applied directly to the eyes or skin.
• Direct consumption: The fresh fruit is eaten raw for its medicinal benefits.

 Side Effects / Caution

1. General Safety Profile (Favorable – Low Toxicity)

Multiple toxicity studies have demonstrated that Vitex doniana has a favorable safety profile with low toxicity when used appropriately.

Acute Toxicity:

• The LD50 by oral route was estimated to be beyond 3000 mg/kg in rodent models, indicating very low acute toxicity.
• No signs of autonomic and central nervous system stimulation or depression were recorded.
• Toxicological tests using animal models have shown higher lethal doses, suggesting that V. doniana is safe for consumption.

Subacute Toxicity (28-day studies):

• The fruit extract at doses of 100, 300, and 1000 mg/kg showed no significant adverse effects.
• Liver enzymes (ALT, AST, ALP, and GGT), serum proteins, and bilirubin levels did not significantly increase, indicating no liver damage.
• Instead, beneficial effects on blood parameters (increased RBC, HB, PCV, and lymphocyte counts) were observed.
• Lack of Data on Specific Populations: While general safety has been established in animal models, there is limited specific data on the use of V. doniana in medicinal quantities during:
• Pregnancy
• Breastfeeding (lactation)
• Infants and young children

Recommendation: Normal dietary consumption of the fruit as food is likely safe, but medicinal use (concentrated decoctions, extracts) during pregnancy and breastfeeding should be approached with caution or under professional supervision.

• Drug Interactions: Given the plant’s documented antidiabetic and anti-inflammatory properties:
• Antidiabetic medications: May have additive blood sugar-lowering effects. Diabetics should monitor their blood glucose levels when consuming V. doniana therapeutically.
• Antihypertensive medications: The plant contains significant potassium and may affect blood pressure.
• Immunosuppressant medications: The plant’s immunomodulatory effects (increased lymphocyte counts) could theoretically interact with immunosuppressive drugs .
• Correct Plant Identification: Ensure the plant is correctly identified as Vitex doniana Sweet before use. The tree has distinctive features (opposite compound leaves with 5 leaflets, white-purple flowers, black oblong fruits) that aid in identification. The Cocoa Research Institute of Nigeria (CRIN) has added this crop to its mandate, which may facilitate improved cultivation and identification resources in Nigeria.
• Harvesting and Preparation Considerations:
• Fruit: Only fully ripe (purplish-black) fruits should be consumed. Unripe green fruits may be less palatable and have different phytochemical profiles.
• Leaves: Traditional preparations typically involve cooking or boiling, which may reduce any potential antinutrient content.
• Roots: As with many medicinal plants, sustainable harvesting of roots is important to preserve the tree population.
• Allergic Reactions: As with any plant, rare allergic reactions are possible in sensitive individuals. Those with known allergies to other members of the Lamiaceae family (mint, basil, sage, rosemary) should exercise caution when using V. doniana for the first time.
• Moderation: As with any food or herbal medicine, moderation is recommended. The traditional use of the fruit as a food suggests it is safe for regular consumption in normal dietary amounts.
• Conservation Considerations: Vitex doniana is valued for its multiple uses (food, medicine, timber, fodder). Sustainable harvesting practices should be followed to ensure the species remains available for future generations. The recent addition of this crop to CRIN’s mandate in Nigeria may help promote cultivation and reduce pressure on wild populations.

References

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